Exodus 20:1 21, Exodus 34:1 28, Deuteronomy 5:6 21 Ten Commandments

Target year level: Prep, Year One, Year Seven

Scripture text

Due to the length of these passages, please see Bible Gateway for the full text of Exodus 20:1-21, Exodus 34:1-28 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21

World behind the text

This part of the book of Exodus was of great importance to the Israelites, as it contained an account of their covenant with God, and the commands on which it was based. It was therefore the subject of much reworking and expansion.

Covenant is the method by which God establishes kingship over Israel and Israel is made God's people.

It is only the earlier traditions that narrate the formation of the covenant in Moses' time: later tradition saw the decisive covenant being made earlier at the time of Abraham. (Genesis 17).

The Deuteronomists, in the 7th century BCE, gave great emphasis to the covenant but the actual concept dates back much earlier. Deuteronomy 10:1-5 records a copy of the Decalogue ('Ten Words' or 'Commandments') being placed inside the Ark.

World of the text

In Exodus 19, the Israelites arrive at Sinai after having left Egypt three months before. They remain there for the rest of the Exodus narration and up to Numbers 10:11, which describes their leaving almost a year later. In Exodus 19-24, God gives Moses the Ten Commandments and other laws and regulations for personal conduct and community matters. Then Moses obeys God and offers the blood sacrifice that seals the covenant that God makes with the whole people of Israel (Exodus 24:3-8).

The material in Exodus 20 is from the E source (one of the 4 strands or traditions woven into the Torah or first five books of the Bible). It is inserted between Exodus 19:17 and 20:18 to set these general principles for the governing of life within the context of God's covenant with Israel:

Before Moses presents the commandments to the people, he reminds them that by freeing them from Egypt, God has established sovereignty over them (Hosea: 11:1).
The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue ('ten words') are sometimes called the 'ethical Decalogue' to distinguish them from the 'ritual Decalogue' in Exodus 34:17-26 which is from a different tradition, the J source.
It is a mistake to think of the Ten Commandments as a law code because: they are not comprehensive, but deal with the general principles rather than specific obligations, which the Israelites should follow in their relation to God and to one another, as God's covenant people.
they specify no punishments so they are not legalistic in the sense of being kept to avoid punishment. As the covenant was an act of grace on God's part, Israel's acceptance of them stemmed from a sense of gratitude towards God and was a free act. Their willing acceptance of and obedience to them, marked Israel as the people chosen by God.
The commandments are written in the second person singular, addressing the people as a whole and each male Israelite individually.
These may be the Ten Commandments Moses wrote on the two tablets of stone (Exodus 34:28; Deuteronomy 4:13; 10:4). Also, they may be the original 'Book of the Covenant' (Exodus 24:7).

Notes on Exodus 34:10-28

34:10: This covenant precludes any covenant with the inhabitants of Canaan (34:12).

34:11-16: The Deuteronomic editor here contrasts the covenant with a forbidden covenant with foreign peoples.

34:11: These nations mentioned were the inhabitants of Canaan.

34:12: In fact, Israel did not drive out all previous inhabitants of the land (Judges 3).

34:13: "Sacred pillars/poles" represents the Canaan deities. Asherah is the Canaanite goddess of fertility, the wife of El, the chief god of the Canaanites (Genesis 33:20).

34:14: The 'other god' is always seen as the greatest danger to following YHWH. This is a parallel of the first commandment in Exodus 20:3. Literally it reads, 'the Lord, whose name is jealous, is a jealous God'.

34:15: This describes a situation in which an Israelite is invited by pagans to a meal and eats meat that has been sacrificed to a pagan god. cf 1 Corinthians 8.

34:16: Intermarriage inevitably leads to combining beliefs or practices from different religions (syncretism). See also 1 Kings 11:1-8; Ezra 9-10; Nehemiah 13:23-27.

34:17: This is a parallel of the 2nd commandment in Exodus 20:4 (also Leviticus 19:4; Deuteronomy 5:8; 27:15).

34:18-26: See Exodus 13:12-13 and 23:12,15-19. For the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which includes Passover, see Exodus 12:14-20; Leviticus 23:5-8; Numbers 28:16-25. 'Month of Aviv' meaning 'green ears' is the name of the first Canaanite month, falling in spring. The Babylonian name of the first month, 'Nisan', was adopted later.

34:19-20: See 13:12-13 and 22:29-30 on redeeming the firstborn. In ancient religions, sometimes the first-born male of domesticated animals and even humans were offered in sacrifice to the gods. As Israel had no human sacrifice, lambs were substituted for the children, and the ritual was practised to remember the exodus from Egypt.

34:20: The ass was not considered a suitable sacrifice because it was unclean (Leviticus 11:3). A sheep was sacrificed instead or the ass was killed.

34:22: 'Feast of Weeks' or 'Feast of Harvest' (23:16). The harvest of wheat was celebrated in the late spring. It was eventually known as Pentecost and observed 50 days after the Passover. The Feasts of Weeks, Shelter and Passover were the pilgrim festivals for Judaism when males over 12 would go up to Jerusalem to celebrate them.

34:24: 'No one should covet your land' - at the three annual festivals all males would be at the sanctuary, leaving the land undefended. Its safety is guaranteed.

34:25: The prohibition of yeast is mentioned in Exodus 23:18. Yeast was forbidden in the 7-day Feast of Unleavened Bread celebrating the beginning of the barley harvest, later adopted to celebrate Passover. The command to eat the whole animal refers to Exodus 12:10.

34:26: For the commands of the 'first corn' and 'young sheep' see Exodus 22:29; 23:19; Deuteronomy 14:21; 26:2.

34:27-28: Moses himself writes upon the tablets, despite the suggestion elsewhere that YHWH himself does.

34:27: It is emphasised that God made the covenant with Moses. Only indirectly is the covenant with Israel, as it is Moses who is the mediator.

34:28: 'Forty days and nights' - numbers in the Bible can have a symbolic significance. 'Forty' is often used as a round number to indicate a long time rather than a precise duration. This event is mentioned also in Exodus 24:18. In Deuteronomy, Moses spends two periods of this length on the mountain (Deuteronomy 9:18; 10:10).

Features of the Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments show Israel's duty to God and duties to other people. They call for respect for and right relationship with God and respect for their neighbours' life, property, good name and marriage bond.

They cover a large area of life and bring this under people's moral obligation to God. If Israel abandoned the commandments, Yahweh might abandon her. Israel's election meant that there was no natural or necessary connection between God and his people. Observing these laws was Israel's link with God.
They are a foundation upon which more specific laws may be built.
It is unusual for laws to be presented as being spoken in the first person. Importantly, the commands are given by God and this gives them a new sanction. They are no longer grounded only in common law, as in casuistic formulations, but in the will of God.
The form of the Decalogue is couched in a form almost unique to Israel - the apodictic form. The common form was the casuistic form, stating 'If a man does... then...' or 'Whoever does...'. Here, apodictic law states a direct, categorical command in the 2nd person, implying that each person is responsible.
The fifth and the tenth commandments are amplified.
They are reproduced in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but the Exodus form appears more ancient.
When God finished his discourse with Moses, he gave Moses the tablets of stone 'written with the finger of God' – i.e. they have God's signature upon them.
Although they were promulgated for Israel alone, their universality led them to becoming the foundation of Judaeo-Christian ethics.
Jesus' provided a summary of the commandments (See Mark 12:28-34).

Numbering the Ten Commandments

The number ten probably arose as a practical device for remembering laws by the ten fingers of the hands.

The division of the commandments varies within different traditions:

Jewish tradition makes 20:2 the 1st, combining verses 3 & 4 as the 2nd commandment.
The Greek church tradition has the 1st commandment in verse 3, the 2nd in verses 4-6, the 3rd in verse 7, the 4th verses 8-11, the 5th is verse 12 and so on.
The Roman church makes verses 3 & 4 the 1st, and has two commandments in verse 17.

Cultural Contexts

The actual ethical prescriptions of the Ten Commandments were not unique to Israel but were similar to other codes at the time. But the monolatry ('worship of a single God') of God was. YHWH alone was to be worshipped, even if it was acknowledged that other gods might exist

The usual understanding of sin in religions of the ancient Near East was related to failing to perform the rituals accurately and so upsetting the gods. With this new covenant of the Israelites, the relationship of humans with God was on a completely different basis; a moral God required a moral people.
The usual form for laws in the ancient Near East was the casuistic form - 'If a person does...then...'. The apodictic form here is a direct command to the individual. No punishment is included.

It is easy for the modern reader to take the Ten Commandments out of their original cultural context and this can distort the interpretation given to them for example:

the family unit living together might comprise up to four generations. Each generation had its obligations. Older parents were entirely dependent on their families to support them. A strong family unit was vital for society's well-being.
adultery had a different meaning in the culture of the day, to the modern one.
false testimony related directly to the judicial system which operated then.

The cultures of the time represented their gods in a variety of forms - sun, moon, animals and fish. The gods entered into the images to manifest themselves.

The evil of covetousness is commented upon previously in Egyptian wisdom literature (Exodus 20:17).

Intermarriage with people of other cultural and religious backgrounds always brought with it the risk of syncretism (following two or more cultures at once) which Israel was charged to avoid at all costs.

The Ten Commandments have had a huge influence on the culture of the present Western world.

Theological issues

The nature of the material

As has been noted, this material contains the covenant agreement with Moses on behalf of Israel and is of central importance to Israelite history and identity. Therefore, according to biblical scholars, it has been edited thoroughly by those who compiled the Torah. So, in order to make sense of it, it is vital to appreciate that the original record has been worked over by later editors, details altered and passages inserted.
Once this background is recognised, it becomes possible to understand why it reads as it does and why similar material appears elsewhere. It is also important to accept that scholars still do not always agree about solutions, as the evidence is not always conclusive.
At the same time, it has to be accepted that within both Judaism and Christianity, there are different interpretations of the Torah. There are those who have a literal interpretation of biblical material and hold that Moses himself wrote this down receiving it directly from God. On the other hand, there are those who take recent biblical criticism seriously and recognise the material can only be interpreted in a more liberal fashion which takes account of the several strands of tradition, the various compilations and the editing. Increased knowledge of Hebrew has aided scholarship on the Bible.
It is important for the modern reader to be aware that the meaning of terms has changed with time. It is easy to misunderstand the original by applying the modern interpretation of the word, for example, the biblical terms translated as 'jealous', 'swearing' and 'murder' have different connotations from the modern usage.

The Covenant

The covenant bond between God and Israel was established by God's compassion for the afflicted tribes in Egypt. The immediate outcome of the deliverance was the establishment of a covenant between YHWH and Israel. God had revealed himself in delivering her and now was to self-reveal in the laws.
The covenant was accomplished through the grace of God and the Israelite response was one of gratitude and obedience to her new responsibilities. It was more than a mere compact or contract. It was to share a common life. God offered to be Israel's God and look after her, if she would agree to live as he wanted her to, as his people. In order to help Israel to fulfil her side of the promise, God gave her the Torah (a set of Laws) so she would know what God expected of her.
The institution of the covenant created a religious community that marked out Israel as God's chosen people. Israel's unity was based on her covenant relationship with God. The true bond of Israel's common life was not race but community.
Moses was Israel's mediator in establishing this relationship with God, although the covenant had started to take shape with God's promises to the Patriarchs - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
Initially the responsibility for maintaining the covenant was seen in community terms. Only later was it understood that it was every individual's responsibility to keep faithful to the covenant promise.

The Law

Later tradition associated Moses as the author of a substantial body of law. Much of this must be of a later origin and it is difficult to determine which of the laws and rites may be attributed to the Exodus period. The Ritual Decalogue and the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:22- 23:33) reflect conditions of agricultural life and are more appropriate to post-Conquest times. The Decalogue's substance may well be very early.
The laws were God's covenant link to Israel and produced a relationship with God. They were seen as coming directly from God, as opposed to being common law for the benefit of society. They enshrined God's will for people. They were not to be kept in order to avoid punishment, as no punishments were included, but because that was what God wanted of his people. The purpose of the laws was to shape the life of the people of God in preparation for God's purposes being fulfilled at the end of time.
The laws set the scene for a way of life that would keep Israel in covenant with God. If Israel neglected the laws, the harmony and relationship would be broken. These laws introduced a new understanding of sin. In the past, sin resulted from a neglect of appropriate rituals. Here, sin becomes linked to moral life.
The fact that these laws were directed to the individual implies that they were directly responsible for keeping them. Initially however, the community as a whole was seen as having the responsibility for keeping them, rather than the individual directly. It was later with the prophet Jeremiah, that emphasis was placed on each person having the covenant 'written on their hearts' - Jeremiah 31:31-34.
The Ten Commandments were the heart of the Jewish Torah and became important in Christianity too. These ancient laws form the bedrock of modern western law.

Ritual

Along with the moral laws in Israel there were many ritual laws relating to the organisation of the shrines, Temple, sacrifices, priests, feasts etc. It is believed that ritual laws relate to the time when Israel was settled in Canaan. But, some scholars argue ritual laws precede moral laws. Exodus 34:10-28 contains what is known as the Ritual Decalogue.
In origin, the pattern of activities called rituals was believed to control the environment and secure the prosperity of the community. While almost all situations in life might call for some kind of ritual, the great ritual occasions coincided with the great turning points of the agricultural year, so served to ensure the fertility of the crops and the fertility of herds and flocks. Ritual consisted of spoken words and actions. Ritual had power to maintain a situation in being.
So, the Israelites adopted the agricultural feasts from the Canaanites and adapted and reinterpreted them in the light of their direct experience of Yahweh's active intervention in their history. Unleavened Bread was linked to Passover recalling and re-enacting their deliverance from Egypt, Weeks was associated with YHWH 's giving of the Law and Tabernacles re-enacted Israel's time in the wilderness. YHWH was not a dying and rising fertility god but the living God revealed in Israel's history and these events needed to be enshrined in Israelite tradition and memory through ritual celebrations.

Sin

In the Old Testament / Hebrew Bible, sin originally resulted from neglecting to carrying out rituals appropriately. But once Israel's covenant relationship with God became expressed through a moral code, a new interpretation was given to sin. It was seen in terms of deviating from the moral obligations expected of God's covenant people. It was failing to do something in relation to God or humankind.
Sin could be committed deliberately or unintentionally. The latter could be rectified in some way. But more deeply seated, deliberate sin was seen as spreading like poison. Sin harmed the positive forces which upheld the community too, so it was not just a personal matter but more far-reaching. It violated God because God was at the heart of every Israelite's covenant. Sin meant the dissolution of the soul. An entirely sinful soul was no longer reckoned a human soul. But confession of sin, not only in the cult (through sacrifices) but face to face with God won forgiveness and the soul was restored to wholeness.

Monotheism

What appears in Exodus 20:3 at this early stage in Israel's history, may be called monolatry (the exclusive worship of one god without excluding the existence of others) rather than monotheism, since other gods, although their existence is admitted, do not come into the question.
Some scholars believe that Moses had attained to monotheism. But the formula in Exodus 15:11 ('who is like unto thee among the gods, O YHWH?') is almost identical to that used by polytheists to honour their deities. It is therefore disputed whether there was real monotheism as early as this.
God is a jealous God, which sums up his zealous maintenance of his cause and his claim on the undivided allegiance of his people. They must worship him alone. In him alone they must trust. This exclusiveness is an important element in Hebrew monotheism and emphasises its character as practical rather than speculative.
Moses' faith is in a God who will have no rivals, who has no partner or consort, before whom the deities worshipped by others are as nothing. Here there is the germ of the developed monotheism of later times. YHWH has sovereign freedom in Egypt or elsewhere. To resort to any other God is to resort to the ineffectual.

No Images

In contrast to the other religions, Israel's God, YHWH, was not to be reduced to an image. Nothing material could represent God because he was a spiritual being. YHWH manifested himself to Israel through his word and actions in history and could not be tied down to a wooden or metal form. Anything made by humankind and then worshipped as God was mistaken, because the maker of something was always greater than what had been made.
Through images, human beings hoped to be able to manipulate their gods, but Israel's God was omnipotent and humans stood no chance of manipulating that! However, people like something concrete to aid their belief and so it was not long before Israel was breaking this commandment. See Exodus 32.
Maybe the closest any material form could get to God was that of human beings, who reflected God's image in their very beings. See Genesis 1:26. This meant they could have a relationship with God and shared in his purposes on earth as his agents or representatives on earth. There was no need of artificial images.

Sabbath

The keeping of the Sabbath Day (from Friday at sunset to Saturday sunset) was one of the features which distinguished Israel from other nations and one which has kept the Jewish people united.
It has been noted that two different reasons were given for its observance
- it should remind Israel of her slavery in Egypt when she was unable to choose when or when not to work;
- it followed God's example of resting on the seventh day, after completing creation.
The observance of the Sabbath is thought to have commenced in Exile when the Jews copied the Babylonians who set aside a day to worship their gods. But some scholars think it was observed much earlier.
By ceasing common everyday tasks on the Sabbath, Jews were free to focus on worshipping God and studying their Scriptures. It developed God-consciousness and established a rhythm to the week, building up to the climax on the Sabbath. It also meant that the family gathered together to celebrate the Sabbath together. The Sabbath meal was an important time when, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the Jewish table took the place of the Temple altar and the father of the household took on the priestly role.
Far from being seen as a day of deprivation by Jews, it freed them from daily distractions to rejoice in their covenant relation with God.